Extraordinary Origins of Everyday Things Read Online Free Page B

Coin: 1st Century B.C ., Rome
    In ancient times, people believed that major life decisions should be made by the gods. And they devised ingenious forms of divination to coax gods to answer important questions with an unequivocal “yes” or “no.” Although coins—ideally suited for yes/no responses—were first minted by the Lydians in the tenth century B.C ., they were not initially used for decisionmaking.
    It was Julius Caesar, nine hundred years later, who instituted the heads/tails coin-flipping practice. Caesar’s own head appeared on one side of every Roman coin, and consequently it was a head —specifically that of Caesar—that in a coin flip determined the winner of a dispute or indicated an affirmative response from the gods.
    Such was the reverence for Caesar that serious litigation, involving property, marriage, or criminal guilt, often was settled by the flip of a coin. Caesar’s head landing upright meant that the emperor, in absentia, agreed with a particular decision and opposed the alternative.
    Spilling Salt: 3500 B.C , Near East
    Salt was man’s first food seasoning, and it so dramatically altered his eating habits that it is not at all surprising that the action of spilling the precious ingredient became tantamount to bad luck.
    Following an accidental spilling of salt, a superstitious nullifying gesture such as throwing a pinch of it over the left shoulder became a practice of the ancient Sumerians, the Egyptians, the Assyrians, and later the Greeks. For the Romans, salt was so highly prized as a seasoning for food and a medication for wounds that they coined expressions utilizing the word, which have become part of our language. The Roman writer Petronius, in the Satyricon , originated “not worth his salt” as opprobrium for Roman soldiers, who were given special allowances for salt rations, called salarium — “salt money” —the origin of our word “salary.”
    Archaeologists know that by 6500 B.C ., people living in Europe were actively mining what are thought to be the first salt mines discovered on the continent, the Hallstein and Hallstatt deposits in Austria. Today these caves are tourist attractions, situated near the town of Salzburg, which of course means “City of Salt.” Salt purified water, preserved meat and fish, and enhanced the taste of food, and the Hebrews, the Greeks, and the Romans used salt in all their major sacrifices.
    The veneration of salt, and the foreboding that followed its spilling, is poignantly captured in Leonardo da Vinci’s The Last Supper . Judas has spilled the table salt, foreshadowing the tragedy—Jesus’ betrayal—that wasto follow. Historically, though, there is no evidence of salt having been spilled at the Last Supper. Leonardo wittingly incorporated the widespread superstition into his interpretation to further dramatize the scene. The classic painting thus contains two ill-boding omens: the spilling of salt, and thirteen guests at a table.
    Umbrella Indoors: 18th Century, England
    Bad luck superstitions surrounding the umbrella began with the Egyptians, who imparted their intricately designed umbrellas of papyrus and peacock feathers with religious significance. These early umbrellas were never intended to protect against rain (which was rare and a blessing in arid Egypt), but served as sunshades in the blistering heat of day. (See “Umbrella,” page 318.)
    The Egyptians believed that the canopy of the sky was formed by the body of the celestial goddess Nut. With only her toes and fingertips touching the earth, her torso spanned the planet like a vast umbrella. Man-made umbrellas were regarded as small-scale earthly embodiments of Nut and suitable only to be held above the heads of nobility. The shade cast by an umbrella outdoors was sacred, and for a commoner to even accidentally step into it was considered sacrilegious, a harbinger of bad luck. (This belief was reversed by the Babylonians, who deemed it an honor to have even a foot